What Assets Are Eligible or Required to Be Reported at Fair Value in the Financial Statements?

Share This...

Introduction

Definition of Fair Value

In this article, we’ll cover what assets are eligible or required to be reported at fair value in the financial statements. Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. This definition, established by accounting standards like IFRS 13 and ASC 820, emphasizes that fair value is a market-based measurement, not an entity-specific measurement. It reflects the assumptions that market participants would use when pricing the asset or liability, considering all available information, including market conditions at the measurement date.

Importance of Fair Value Measurement in Financial Reporting

Fair value measurement is critical in financial reporting for several reasons:

Relevance: Fair value provides timely information about the current value of an entity’s assets and liabilities, making financial statements more relevant to users.
Comparability: Using fair value enhances comparability across entities and industries by reflecting market conditions uniformly.
Decision-Making: Investors, creditors, and other stakeholders rely on fair value information to make informed decisions regarding resource allocation, investment, and credit.
Transparency: Fair value measurement promotes transparency in financial reporting by revealing the current market values of assets and liabilities, reducing information asymmetry.

Overview of Assets Reported at Fair Value

Various assets are eligible or required to be reported at fair value in financial statements. These include:

Financial Assets: This category encompasses marketable securities, derivatives, and other financial instruments that are traded in active markets. Financial assets are often measured at fair value to provide an accurate representation of their market value.
Investment Properties: Properties held for rental income or capital appreciation are typically measured at fair value under IAS 40. This ensures that the carrying amount reflects the current market conditions.
Biological Assets: Agricultural produce and living plants and animals, classified as biological assets under IAS 41, are measured at fair value less costs to sell.
Certain Intangible Assets: In specific circumstances, intangible assets such as patents and trademarks may be measured at fair value, especially when acquired in a business combination.
Derivatives: All derivative instruments are measured at fair value, reflecting their current market value and potential future cash flows.

By understanding which assets are measured at fair value, stakeholders can gain deeper insights into an entity’s financial position and performance, facilitating better economic decisions and fostering trust in financial reporting practices.

Understanding Fair Value

Definition and Conceptual Framework

Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. This market-based measurement reflects the price at which an asset could be exchanged or a liability settled in an active market, emphasizing the perspectives of market participants rather than the reporting entity itself.

The conceptual framework for fair value involves several key components:

Market Participants: Fair value considers the assumptions of knowledgeable, willing parties in the principal (or most advantageous) market.
Orderly Transaction: The measurement assumes a transaction that is not forced or distressed, reflecting normal market conditions.
Measurement Date: Fair value is determined based on conditions at the specific date of measurement, accounting for current market conditions.

Fair Value Hierarchy (Level 1, Level 2, Level 3 Inputs)

The fair value hierarchy categorizes the inputs used in valuation techniques into three levels, providing transparency and consistency in fair value measurements:

Level 1 Inputs: These are quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the entity can access at the measurement date. Level 1 inputs provide the most reliable evidence of fair value. Examples include publicly traded stocks and bonds.
Level 2 Inputs: These are inputs other than quoted prices included in Level 1 that are observable for the asset or liability, either directly or indirectly. Level 2 inputs might include quoted prices for similar assets in active markets, quoted prices for identical assets in inactive markets, or other observable market data like interest rates and yield curves.
Level 3 Inputs: These are unobservable inputs for the asset or liability, relying on the entity’s own assumptions about what market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability. Level 3 inputs are used when observable inputs are not available, often requiring significant judgment and estimation. Examples include certain private equity investments and complex financial instruments.

Importance of Fair Value in Accounting Standards (IFRS, GAAP)

Fair value measurement is a cornerstone of both International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) due to its ability to provide relevant and comparable information to users of financial statements.

IFRS: IFRS 13 “Fair Value Measurement” provides a comprehensive framework for measuring fair value and requires disclosures about fair value measurements. It applies to all IFRS standards that require or permit fair value measurement, enhancing comparability and transparency.
GAAP: The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has issued ASC 820 “Fair Value Measurement,” which defines fair value, establishes a framework for measuring fair value, and expands disclosures about fair value measurements. ASC 820 aims to improve the consistency and comparability of fair value measurements in financial reporting.

Both IFRS and GAAP emphasize the importance of fair value in reflecting current market conditions, enhancing the relevance of financial statements, and providing a uniform framework for measuring and disclosing fair value. This alignment ensures that financial statements prepared under different accounting standards provide consistent and comparable information to stakeholders, facilitating better economic decision-making.

Assets Eligible for Fair Value Measurement

Financial Assets

Financial assets are among the most commonly measured at fair value due to their active trading in financial markets. Examples include:

Marketable Securities: These are equity or debt securities that are bought and sold in active markets. Their fair value is readily determinable from quoted market prices (Level 1 inputs). Marketable securities are often classified as trading securities or available-for-sale securities under GAAP, requiring fair value measurement to reflect their current market value.
Derivatives: Derivative instruments, such as options, futures, forwards, and swaps, are always measured at fair value. These financial instruments derive their value from underlying assets, rates, or indices. The fair value of derivatives is typically determined using market-based inputs (Level 1 or Level 2 inputs), but in the absence of active markets, valuation models (Level 3 inputs) are used.

Investment Properties

Investment properties, defined as properties held to earn rental income or for capital appreciation, are measured at fair value under certain accounting standards.

Criteria for Fair Value Eligibility: Under IAS 40 “Investment Property,” entities can choose to measure investment properties at fair value. This choice provides users with current market valuations, enhancing transparency and relevance. Fair value is determined using market-based evidence, such as recent prices for similar properties, or by applying valuation techniques like discounted cash flow analysis.

Biological Assets

Biological assets include living plants and animals, such as livestock, crops, and forestry plantations.

Criteria for Fair Value Eligibility: Under IAS 41 “Agriculture,” biological assets are measured at fair value less costs to sell. This reflects the reality that these assets have active markets where prices can be observed, ensuring that the financial statements present the current value of biological growth. For instance, the fair value of a growing crop or a herd of livestock is based on market prices for similar assets in the same condition and location.

Certain Intangible Assets

Intangible assets, such as patents and trademarks, can also be measured at fair value under specific circumstances.

Criteria for Fair Value Eligibility: Intangible assets acquired in a business combination are measured at fair value at the acquisition date, as required by IFRS 3 “Business Combinations” and ASC 805 under GAAP. The fair value of intangible assets is often determined using valuation techniques like the relief-from-royalty method, the excess earnings method, or the cost approach. These methods consider market-based inputs and the asset’s ability to generate future economic benefits.

Detailed Explanation of Each Asset Type and Criteria for Fair Value Eligibility

Marketable Securities: The fair value of marketable securities is typically observable through stock exchanges or market quotations, making them ideal candidates for fair value measurement. The main criteria for eligibility are the active trading of the securities and the availability of quoted prices.
Derivatives: The complex nature and volatility of derivatives necessitate fair value measurement. Derivatives are often traded in regulated markets or over-the-counter (OTC) markets, providing sufficient data for fair value estimation. The criteria include the presence of an underlying asset, rate, or index and the ability to access market data.
Investment Properties: Investment properties are eligible for fair value measurement when they are held for rental income or capital appreciation rather than for use in production or administrative purposes. The primary criterion is the intention to benefit from the property’s value changes and income generation potential.
Biological Assets: The fair value of biological assets is based on their biological transformation and market conditions. Eligibility criteria include the asset’s nature (living plants or animals) and the existence of an active market where prices are observable. The measurement reflects the asset’s ability to generate future economic benefits through growth, procreation, or harvest.
Certain Intangible Assets: Intangible assets are eligible for fair value measurement primarily during business combinations or when they are acquired in transactions that provide observable market data. The criteria include the asset’s ability to generate future economic benefits, such as revenue from licensing or market positioning advantages.

By understanding the criteria and methodologies for fair value measurement of these assets, stakeholders can appreciate the relevance and reliability of the financial statements, ultimately leading to more informed economic decisions.

Assets Required to Be Reported at Fair Value

Financial Instruments

Financial instruments are often required to be reported at fair value due to their active trading and the need for current market valuations.

Trading Securities: These are securities bought and held primarily for sale in the near term to generate income on short-term price differences. Under both IFRS and GAAP, trading securities are required to be reported at fair value. The fair value is determined based on quoted market prices, and any unrealized gains or losses are recognized in the income statement.
Available-for-Sale Securities: These are debt and equity securities not classified as trading or held-to-maturity securities. Under GAAP, available-for-sale securities are reported at fair value, with unrealized gains and losses recognized in other comprehensive income. IFRS no longer uses the available-for-sale classification but requires similar treatment for debt instruments under IFRS 9 “Financial Instruments.”

Derivative Instruments

All derivative instruments must be reported at fair value, reflecting their inherent volatility and the need for current market assessments.

Examples of Derivatives: Common derivatives include options, futures, forwards, and swaps. These financial instruments derive their value from underlying assets, rates, or indices and are used for hedging or speculative purposes.
Regulatory Requirements: Under both IFRS and GAAP, derivatives are required to be measured at fair value, with changes in fair value recognized in the income statement or as part of other comprehensive income if the derivative is designated as a hedging instrument. The fair value is typically determined using market-based inputs (Level 1 or Level 2), but for complex derivatives, valuation models (Level 3) may be necessary.

Investment Property Under Certain Circumstances

Investment property, such as real estate held for rental income or capital appreciation, may be required to be reported at fair value under certain accounting standards.

Criteria under IAS 40: IAS 40 “Investment Property” allows entities to choose either the cost model or the fair value model for measuring investment properties. If the fair value model is selected, the property must be measured at fair value at each reporting date, with changes recognized in the income statement.
Circumstances Requiring Fair Value Measurement: Under the fair value model, investment properties are required to be measured at fair value continuously, providing users with current market values. This requirement applies if the entity elects the fair value model and must be consistently applied to all investment properties.

Detailed Explanation of Each Asset Type and Regulatory Requirements

Trading Securities: These securities are actively bought and sold for short-term gains. The fair value is based on readily available market prices, ensuring that the financial statements reflect current market conditions. Regulatory requirements mandate that unrealized gains or losses are immediately recognized in the income statement, providing a transparent view of the entity’s financial performance.
Available-for-Sale Securities: For debt securities classified as available-for-sale under GAAP, fair value measurement ensures that changes in market conditions are reflected in the financial statements. Unrealized gains and losses are recorded in other comprehensive income, providing a complete picture of the entity’s financial health. Regulatory requirements ensure that fair value information is disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
Derivative Instruments: Derivatives are inherently volatile and sensitive to market changes. Fair value measurement captures this volatility, providing stakeholders with accurate information about the entity’s exposure to risk. Regulatory requirements mandate detailed disclosures about the valuation techniques and assumptions used, ensuring transparency and consistency in reporting.
Investment Property: Under IAS 40, investment properties measured at fair value provide users with current market valuations, reflecting the potential income and capital appreciation. The fair value model requires regular revaluation, with changes recognized in the income statement. This approach ensures that the financial statements present a realistic view of the entity’s real estate investments and their performance.

By adhering to these regulatory requirements, entities ensure that their financial statements provide a faithful representation of their financial position and performance, facilitating better decision-making and fostering trust among stakeholders.

Fair Value Measurement Techniques

Market Approach

The market approach determines fair value based on market prices and other relevant information generated by market transactions involving identical or comparable assets or liabilities.

Description: This approach uses prices and other relevant information from market transactions involving identical or similar assets or liabilities. It is most reliable when there is an active market for the asset or liability being measured.
Application: The market approach is commonly used for assets such as publicly traded securities, real estate, and commodities. It relies on observable market data to derive the fair value, making it the preferred method when such data is available.
Example: For a publicly traded equity security, the fair value is determined based on the quoted price on an active exchange, representing the most recent transaction price. If a company holds shares of a publicly traded company, the market approach would use the closing price on the measurement date to determine the fair value of those shares.

Income Approach

The income approach calculates fair value based on the present value of future cash flows or income that the asset is expected to generate.

Description: This approach converts future amounts (e.g., cash flows or income) to a single present value amount using a discount rate that reflects the time value of money and the risks associated with the asset or liability.
Application: The income approach is often used for assets that do not have readily observable market prices, such as private equity investments, intangibles, and real estate properties expected to generate rental income.
Example: For a commercial building leased to tenants, the fair value might be determined by projecting the future rental income and other cash flows, then discounting these amounts back to their present value using a discount rate that reflects the risks associated with the property.

Cost Approach

The cost approach estimates fair value based on the amount required to replace the service capacity of an asset.

Description: This approach reflects the amount that would be required currently to replace the service capacity of an asset (often referred to as current replacement cost). It considers the cost to acquire or construct a substitute asset of comparable utility, adjusted for obsolescence.
Application: The cost approach is frequently used for assets where there is no active market and where the asset is unique, such as specialized equipment, custom-built machinery, or real estate improvements.
Example: For a piece of specialized manufacturing equipment, the fair value might be determined by estimating the current cost to replace the equipment with a new one of similar utility, adjusted for physical deterioration, functional obsolescence, and economic obsolescence.

Examples of How Each Technique Is Applied to Different Assets

Market Approach Example: A company holds 1,000 shares of a publicly traded company. On the measurement date, the closing price of the shares on the stock exchange is $50 per share. Using the market approach, the fair value of the shares is $50,000 (1,000 shares * $50 per share).
Income Approach Example: A company owns a patent expected to generate future cash flows of $1 million per year for the next five years. If the appropriate discount rate is 10%, the present value of these future cash flows can be calculated using the income approach. The fair value of the patent would be the sum of the discounted cash flows.
Cost Approach Example: A company owns a custom-built machine that would cost $500,000 to replace with a new one of similar utility. Considering the machine is 20% obsolete due to wear and tear and technological advancements, the fair value using the cost approach would be $400,000 ($500,000 – 20% obsolescence).

By applying these fair value measurement techniques appropriately, entities can ensure that their financial statements accurately reflect the current value of their assets and liabilities, providing useful and reliable information to stakeholders.

Fair Value Disclosures in Financial Statements

Required Disclosures Under GAAP and IFRS

Both GAAP and IFRS require comprehensive disclosures to ensure transparency and consistency in fair value measurements. These disclosures provide users with information about the methods and assumptions used in determining fair value, the levels of the fair value hierarchy, and the impact of fair value measurements on the financial statements.

GAAP Requirements (ASC 820)

Under ASC 820, entities must disclose the following:

Valuation Techniques and Inputs: Description of the valuation techniques (market approach, income approach, cost approach) and the inputs used in the fair value measurements.
Fair Value Hierarchy Levels: Classification of fair value measurements into Levels 1, 2, and 3, with a detailed explanation of the hierarchy.
Level 3 Reconciliations: A reconciliation of the opening and closing balances for fair value measurements using significant unobservable inputs (Level 3), including total gains or losses recognized, purchases, sales, issuances, and settlements.
Non-Recurring Fair Value Measurements: Information about fair value measurements for assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a non-recurring basis, including the reasons for the measurement and the impact on financial performance.

IFRS Requirements (IFRS 13)

Under IFRS 13, entities must disclose:

Fair Value Measurement at Reporting Date: The fair value measurement of each class of assets and liabilities at the reporting date.
Valuation Techniques and Inputs: Description of the valuation techniques and inputs used, including any changes in techniques and reasons for those changes.
Fair Value Hierarchy Levels: Information about the levels of the fair value hierarchy (Levels 1, 2, and 3) for each class of assets and liabilities.
Level 3 Reconciliations: A reconciliation of the opening and closing balances for fair value measurements categorized within Level 3, detailing gains or losses, transfers, and other changes.
Sensitivity Analysis: For fair value measurements categorized within Level 3, a sensitivity analysis showing the effect of changes in significant unobservable inputs on the fair value.

Examples of Fair Value Disclosures

Providing practical examples can help illustrate how fair value disclosures are presented in financial statements:

Example 1: Financial Instrument Disclosures

A company discloses its financial instruments’ fair value measurements as follows:

Valuation Techniques and Inputs: “The fair value of trading securities is determined based on quoted market prices in active markets (Level 1). The fair value of derivative instruments is determined using discounted cash flow analysis, with inputs including observable interest rates and yield curves (Level 2).”
Fair Value Hierarchy Levels: “As of the reporting date, $10 million of trading securities are classified as Level 1, and $5 million of derivative instruments are classified as Level 2.”
Level 3 Reconciliations: “The opening balance for Level 3 financial instruments was $2 million. During the period, total gains of $0.2 million were recognized in earnings, and there were no purchases, sales, or settlements. The closing balance remains $2.2 million.”

Example 2: Investment Property Disclosures

A real estate company provides the following fair value disclosures for its investment properties:

Valuation Techniques and Inputs: “Investment properties are valued using the income approach, with future cash flows discounted at a rate of 7%. Key inputs include projected rental income, occupancy rates, and discount rates.”
Fair Value Hierarchy Levels: “As of the reporting date, all investment properties, valued at $50 million, are classified within Level 3.”
Level 3 Reconciliations: “The opening balance for investment properties was $48 million. During the period, a net gain of $2 million was recognized in the income statement due to fair value adjustments.”

Importance of Transparency and Reliability in Fair Value Reporting

Transparency and reliability in fair value reporting are crucial for several reasons:

Enhanced User Understanding: Detailed disclosures help users understand how fair values are determined, the underlying assumptions, and the level of uncertainty associated with the measurements.
Informed Decision-Making: Investors, creditors, and other stakeholders rely on fair value information to make informed decisions. Clear disclosures provide the necessary context and confidence in the reported values.
Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to disclosure requirements ensures compliance with accounting standards, reducing the risk of regulatory penalties and enhancing the credibility of financial reports.
Market Confidence: Transparent and reliable fair value reporting fosters trust in the financial markets by providing a true and fair view of an entity’s financial position and performance.

By providing comprehensive and clear disclosures, entities can enhance the usefulness of their financial statements, support better decision-making by stakeholders, and maintain confidence in their financial reporting practices.

Challenges and Considerations

Valuation Challenges for Level 2 and Level 3 Assets

Valuing Level 2 and Level 3 assets presents significant challenges due to the reliance on less observable inputs and increased estimation uncertainty.

Level 2 Assets: While these assets have observable inputs, such as quoted prices for similar assets or observable interest rates, the need for adjustments to reflect differences in characteristics can introduce complexity and subjectivity. For example, determining the fair value of bonds in inactive markets requires adjustments for credit risk, liquidity, and other factors, which may not be directly observable.
Level 3 Assets: These assets depend on unobservable inputs, making their valuation highly subjective. The use of complex models and assumptions, such as projected cash flows and discount rates, increases the risk of estimation error. For instance, valuing private equity investments or specialized machinery involves significant judgment about future performance and market conditions.

Impact of Market Conditions on Fair Value

Market conditions can greatly affect fair value measurements, leading to fluctuations that reflect current economic realities.

Volatility: In volatile markets, the fair value of assets can change rapidly, impacting financial statements significantly. For example, during a financial crisis, the fair value of marketable securities can drop sharply, affecting an entity’s reported financial position and performance.
Liquidity: Market liquidity impacts the availability and reliability of observable inputs. In illiquid markets, obtaining reliable price information becomes challenging, increasing reliance on Level 3 inputs and, consequently, estimation uncertainty. For example, the fair value of thinly traded corporate bonds may be difficult to ascertain due to a lack of recent transactions.

Potential for Earnings Volatility Due to Fair Value Changes

Fair value changes can lead to significant earnings volatility, affecting an entity’s reported financial performance.

Financial Instruments: Changes in the fair value of trading securities or derivatives are recognized immediately in earnings, leading to potential swings in reported income. This volatility can obscure the underlying economic performance of the entity, making it harder for stakeholders to assess its long-term viability.
Investment Properties: For entities that opt for the fair value model under IAS 40, changes in property values are recognized in profit or loss. This can result in significant earnings volatility, especially in markets with fluctuating real estate prices. Such volatility may not reflect the operational performance of the entity but rather changes in market conditions.

Ethical Considerations in Fair Value Reporting

Ethical considerations play a crucial role in fair value reporting, ensuring that financial statements provide a true and fair view of an entity’s financial position.

Management Bias: There is a risk of management bias in selecting assumptions and models for fair value measurements. Ethical reporting requires that management objectively and consistently apply valuation techniques, avoiding manipulation to achieve desired financial outcomes. For example, overestimating future cash flows to inflate asset values would be unethical.
Transparency: Ethical reporting demands transparency in disclosing the methods and assumptions used in fair value measurements. This includes providing sufficient detail in financial statement notes to allow stakeholders to understand the basis of the valuations. Concealing or insufficiently disclosing critical valuation inputs undermines trust and can mislead users of the financial statements.
Compliance with Standards: Adhering to accounting standards and regulations is an ethical imperative. Ensuring that fair value measurements comply with the relevant standards (e.g., IFRS 13, ASC 820) helps maintain the integrity of financial reporting. Non-compliance, whether intentional or due to negligence, can result in significant legal and reputational consequences.

By addressing these challenges and considerations, entities can enhance the reliability and credibility of their fair value measurements, providing stakeholders with a true and fair view of their financial position and performance. This requires a commitment to ethical practices, robust valuation techniques, and transparent disclosures, fostering trust in financial reporting.

Conclusion

Summary of Key Points

In this article, we explored the concept of fair value and its significance in financial reporting. We defined fair value as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. The fair value hierarchy (Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 inputs) categorizes the inputs used in fair value measurement, providing transparency and consistency.

We discussed the assets eligible and required to be reported at fair value, including financial assets, investment properties, biological assets, and certain intangible assets. We also covered the various fair value measurement techniques—market approach, income approach, and cost approach—and provided examples of how each technique is applied.

The article addressed the required disclosures under GAAP and IFRS, emphasizing the importance of detailed and transparent disclosures for enhancing user understanding and decision-making. We examined the challenges and considerations in fair value measurement, particularly for Level 2 and Level 3 assets, the impact of market conditions, potential earnings volatility, and ethical considerations in fair value reporting.

Importance of Accurate and Reliable Fair Value Reporting

Accurate and reliable fair value reporting is crucial for several reasons:

Relevance and Comparability: Fair value provides timely and relevant information about an entity’s financial position, enhancing comparability across entities and industries.
Decision-Making: Investors, creditors, and other stakeholders rely on fair value information to make informed decisions regarding resource allocation, investment, and credit.
Transparency and Trust: Transparent and reliable fair value reporting fosters trust in financial statements, reducing information asymmetry and supporting market confidence.
Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to fair value measurement standards ensures compliance with accounting regulations, minimizing the risk of legal and reputational consequences.

Future Trends and Developments in Fair Value Measurement

The landscape of fair value measurement continues to evolve, driven by advances in technology, changes in market conditions, and ongoing developments in accounting standards.

Technological Advancements: The use of advanced valuation tools and software is improving the accuracy and efficiency of fair value measurements. Big data analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning are increasingly being utilized to enhance valuation models and processes.
Market Dynamics: As global markets become more interconnected and complex, the need for robust fair value measurement practices will continue to grow. Market volatility and liquidity challenges will remain critical considerations for fair value reporting.
Regulatory Developments: Ongoing updates to accounting standards, such as the convergence efforts between IFRS and GAAP, will shape the future of fair value measurement. Enhanced disclosure requirements and new guidance on fair value practices are expected to emerge, promoting greater consistency and transparency.
Sustainability and ESG Reporting: The growing focus on environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors is influencing fair value measurement. Entities may need to consider the impact of ESG-related risks and opportunities on asset valuations, leading to more comprehensive and forward-looking fair value assessments.

In conclusion, fair value measurement plays a vital role in financial reporting, providing relevant and reliable information to stakeholders. By addressing the challenges and adhering to ethical practices, entities can ensure that their fair value measurements reflect true economic realities, fostering trust and supporting informed decision-making. As the field continues to evolve, staying abreast of technological advancements, market trends, and regulatory developments will be essential for maintaining the integrity and accuracy of fair value reporting.

Appendix

Glossary of Key Terms

Fair Value: The price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.
Market Approach: A valuation technique that uses prices and other relevant information generated by market transactions involving identical or comparable assets or liabilities.
Income Approach: A valuation technique that converts future amounts (e.g., cash flows or income) to a single present value amount using discount rates.
Cost Approach: A valuation technique that reflects the amount required to replace the service capacity of an asset (often referred to as current replacement cost).
Level 1 Inputs: Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the entity can access at the measurement date.
Level 2 Inputs: Inputs other than quoted prices included in Level 1 that are observable for the asset or liability, either directly or indirectly.
Level 3 Inputs: Unobservable inputs for the asset or liability, relying on the entity’s own assumptions about what market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability.
Trading Securities: Securities that are bought and held primarily for sale in the near term to generate income on short-term price differences.
Derivative Instruments: Financial instruments whose value is derived from the value of an underlying asset, rate, or index, such as options, futures, forwards, and swaps.
Investment Property: Property (land or a building—or part of a building—or both) held to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both.
Biological Assets: Living plants and animals, such as livestock, crops, and forestry plantations.

References and Further Reading

IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement:

ASC 820 Fair Value Measurement:

Valuation Techniques:

Fair Value Measurement in Practice:

Example Fair Value Measurement Calculations

Example 1: Market Approach

A company holds 1,000 shares of a publicly traded company. On the measurement date, the closing price of the shares on the stock exchange is $50 per share. Using the market approach, the fair value of the shares is calculated as follows:

$\text{Fair Value} = 1,000 \, \text{shares} \times \$50 \, \text{per share} = \$50,000 $

Example 2: Income Approach

A company owns a patent expected to generate future cash flows of $1 million per year for the next five years. The appropriate discount rate is 10%. The present value of these future cash flows can be calculated as follows:

$\text{Fair Value} = \sum_{t=1}^{5} \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^t} $

Calculating each year’s present value:

Year 1: $ \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^1} = \$909,090.91 $
Year 2: $ \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^2} = \$826,446.28 $
Year 3: $ \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^3} = \$751,314.80 $
Year 4: $ \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^4} = \$683,013.44 $
Year 5: $ \frac{\$1,000,000}{(1 + 0.10)^5} = \$620,921.31 $

Total Fair Value = $\$909,090.91 + \$826,446.28 + \$751,314.80 + \$683,013.44 + \$620,921.31 = \$3,790,786.74 $

Example 3: Cost Approach

A company owns a custom-built machine that would cost $500,000 to replace with a new one of similar utility. Considering the machine is 20% obsolete due to wear and tear and technological advancements, the fair value is calculated as follows:

$ \text{Fair Value} = \$500,000 \times (1 – 0.20) = \$500,000 \times 0.80 = \$400,000 $

These examples illustrate the application of different fair value measurement techniques, providing a practical understanding of how fair value is determined in various scenarios.